A Journey of 100s Miles to dream

 name differnt vitamins , symptoms of difiency of vit D, Vit K 10mark VITAMINS:- (2 mark) Vitamins are defined as "Small organic molecules present in diet which are required in small amounts "  • most of the vitamin are not synthesized in the body and hence they most be supplied in the diet.  • however, few provitamins are present in the body , which are converted to vitamins. types of vitamin: Vitamins are divided into two groups  1. Fat soluble vitamins  • Vitamin A  • Vitamin D  • Vitamin E  • Vitamin K  2. Water soluble vitamins  • Vitamin B complex  • Vitamin C Vitamin A (5 Mark)  • They are retinol (vitamin A alcohol), Retinal (vitamin A aldehyde) and retinoic acid (Vitamin A acid).  • in nature vitamin A occurs in two forms.  a. retinolesters- in the food of animal origin.  b. carotenes- in plant foods as provitamin.  • in the intestine, pancreatic esterase hydrolyzes retinolesters present in the ...

 FUNCTIONS OF BILE: 2.5 mark Most of the functions of bile are due to the bile salts.  1. DIGESTIVE FUNCTION  • emulsification of fats- fat globules are broken down into minute droplets ,in the form of milky fluid called emulsion.  2. ABSORPTIVE FUNCTIONS  • Absorption of fats -Bile salts combine with fats and make micelles, which is absorbed easily.  3. EXCRETORY FUNCTIONS  • Bile pigments are the major excretory products of the bile.  4. LAXATIVE ACTION - Bile salts act as laxatives .  5. ANTISEPTIC ACTION-Bile inhibits the growth of certain bacteria  6. CHOLERETIC ACTION-Bile salts stimulate the secretion of bile from liver. this action is called choleretic action.  7. MAINTENANCE OF pH IN GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT-As bile is highly alkaline, it neutralizes the acid chyme.  8. PREVENTION OF GALLSTONE FORMATION-Bile salts prevent the formation of gallstone by keeping the cholesterol and lecithin in solution  9. LUBR...

 👉 DIGESTION 5 👉name organ take part in digestion and name diffrrnt digestive juice,5mark 👉Digestive agents 4 mark DIGESTION 5 amrk digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down into simple chemical substance that can be absorbed and used as a nutrient by the body.  • Digestive system is responsible for these functions  • Digestive process is accomplished by mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food into simple chemical compounds.  • Digestive system plays the major role in the digestion and absorption of food substance. Thus , the function of digestive systems includes  a. Ingestion or consumption of food substances  b. Breaking them into small particles  c. Transport of small particles to different areas of the digestive tract  d. Secretion of necessary in enzymes and other substance for digestion  e. Digestion of the food particles  f. Absorption of the digestive product  g. Removal of the unwanted subs...

 🔊CONTENTS 👉Short notes - Carbohydrate 4M 👉 digestion and absorption of carbohydrate 6M 👉 digestion and absorption of protein 6mark  A. CARBOHYDRATE Human diet contains three types of carbohydrates:  1. POLYSACCHARIDES:-  • Starch (rich in potatoes)  • Cellulose and pectin, these cannot be digested by the enzymes in the human GIT.  • Glycogen, here glucose molecules are mostly in long chain  2. DISACCHARIDES:-  Two types of disaccharides are available in the diet.  • Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), which is called table sugar or cane sugar  • Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), which is the sugar available in milk.  3. MONOSACCHARIDES:-  Monosaccharides consumed in human diet are mostly glucose and fructose. Other carbohydrates in the diet include:-  i. Alcohol  ii. Lactic acid  iii. Pyruvic acid  iv. Pectins  v. Dextrins  vi. Carbohydrates in meat.  B. digestion and absorption of carbohydrat...

 PANCREAS:  • pancreas is a dual organ having two function namely endocrine function and exocrine function  • endocrine function is concerned with production of hormone and the exocrine function is concerned with the secretion of digestive juice called pancreatic juice FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF EXOCRINE PART OF PANCREAS  • exocrine part of pancreas resembles salivary gland in a structure that is made of acini or alveoli.  • each Acinus has single layer acinar cell with luman in the centre , acinar cells contain zymogen granules which posess digestive enzymes.  • a small duct arises from lumen of each alveolus , and unit to form intralobular duct .  • all the intralobular duct unit to form main duct of pancreas called Wirsung duct.  • Wirsung duct joins common bile duct to form ampulla of Vater, which opens into duodenum.  • In some persons, an accessory duct called duct of Santorini exists FUNCTIONL anatomy of endocrine part of Pancreas: ...

  • The secretion of gastric juice is controlled by both nerves and hormones.  • Three phases of gastric secretion are cephalic ,gastric and intestinal phases.  (in human beings a 4th phase called interdigestive phase exist) CEPHALIC PHASE  Secretion of gastric juice by the stimuli arising from head region (cephalus) is called cephalic phase.  • This phase is regulated by nervous mechanism.  • The gastric juices secreted during this phase is called appetite Juice.  • During this phase gastric secretion occur without the presence of food in the stomach.  • Two types of reflex -unconditioned and conditioned reflex regulate cephalic phase. GASTRIC PHASE: Secretion of gastric juice and food into the stomach is called gastric phase.  • This phase is regulated by both nervous and hormonal control.  • Gastric juice is secreted during this phase is rich in pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid.  • Gastric phase of secretion last three to fo...

 Determination of ABO blood groups depends upon the immunological reaction between antigen and antibody. Based on the presence or absence of antigen A and antigen B, blood is divided into four groups:  1. ‘A’ group  Blood having antigen A belongs to ‘A’ group. This blood has B (bita )-antibody.  2. ‘B’ group  Blood with antigen B and a(alpha)-antibody belongs to B group.  3. ‘AB’ group  If both the antigens are present , blood group is called AB group.and serum of this group does not contain any antibody.  4. ‘O’ group  If both antigens are absent , the blood group is called O group. and both a(alpha) and B(bita) antibodies are present in the serum. 'A' Group has two subgroups namely 'A1' and 'A2'. Similarly 'AB' group has two subgroups namely 'A1B' and 'A2B'.

  A. IMMUNITY:-  Immunity is defined as the capacity of the body to resist pathogenic agents.  It is the ability of body to resist the entry of different types of foreign bodies like bacteria , virus , toxic substance.,etc.  Immunity is of two types:-  I. Innate immunity  • Innate immunity is the inborn capacity of the body to resist pathogens.  • By chance ,of the organism enter the body , innate immunity eliminates them before the development of any disease.  • It is the first line of defense against any type of pathogens.  • It is also called the natural or non-specific immunity.  II. Acquired immunity  • Acquired immunity is the resistance developed in the body against any specific foreign body like bacteria, viruses , toxins , vaccines or transplanted tissues.  • This type of immunity is also known as specific immunity .  • It is the most powerful immune mechanism that protects the body from the invading organs...

 it is the process in which blood loses its fluidity and become a jelly like masses few minutes after it is shed out or collected in a container. During this process, ➡️the fibrinogen is converted into fibrin. ➡️ fibrin threads get attached to the loose platelet plug. ➡️ it blocks the ruptured blood vessel and prevent further blood loss completely. Stages of Blood Clotting: In general blood clotting occurs in three stages STAGE 1: FORMATION OF PROTHROMBIN ACTIVATOR  • Blood clotting start with the formation of a substance called prothrombin activator. It converts prothombin into thrombin.  • Formation of prothrombin activator occurs by two pathways: intrinsic pathway(initiated by platelets) and extrinsic pathways(initiated by tissue thromboplastin). STAGE 2: CONVERSION OF PROTHROMBIN INTO THROMBIN  • Prothrombin activator converts prothombin into thrombin in the presence of calcium (factor IV) STAGE 3: CONVERSION OF FIBRINOGEN INTO FIBRIN It involves the conv...

 Sickle cell anemia  • Sickle cell anemia is an inherited blood disorder, characterized by sickle-shaped red blood cells.  • It is also called hemoglobin SS diseases or sickle cell disease.  • It is common in people of African origin.  • Sickle cell anemia is due to the abnormal hemoglobin called hemoglobin S (sickle cell hemoglobin).  • Sickle cell anaemia occurs when a person in herits two abnormal gene ( one from each parent.)  • In children, hemolyzed sickle cells aggregate and block the blood vessels, leading to infarction (stoppage of blood supply)  • The interaction is common in small bones.  • Infected small bone in hands and foot result in varying length in the digits.  • This condition is known as hand and foot syndrome.

 COMPOSITION OF BLOOD Blood contains the blood cell and plasma. BLOOD CELLS Three types of cells are present in blood  • Red blood cell or erythrocyte  • White blood cell or leukocytes  • Platelets or thrombocytes PLASMA  • Plasma is a straw coloured clear liquid part of blood.  • It contains about 91% of water and about 9% of solid  • The solid at the organic and inorganic substance. SERUM  • Serum = plasma - fibrinogen  • Serum is the clear straw coloured fluid that oozes from blood clot.  • Serum contains all other constituent of plasma except fibrinogen.  • Fibrinogen is absent in serum because it is converted into fibrin during blood clotting.

 various methods of regulation of Blood pressure 9 Blood pressure:  • Blood pressure is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels.  • Blood pressure is measured using an automated blood pressure monitor, or manually using a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer.  • It is given as two values (eg 120/80 mmHg), measured in “millimetres of mercury (mmHg)  • Systolic pressure – the first number (120 mmHg in the example) is the pressure of the blood during the heart contraction.  • Diastolic pressure – the second number (80 mmHg in the example) is the pressure of the blood after one contraction but before the next contraction. Regulation of Blood Pressure: Short-Term: Short-term regulation of blood pressure is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Changes in blood pressure are detected by baroreceptors- located in the arch of the aorta and the carotid sinus.  I. Increased arterial pressure stretches the wall of the blood vesse...

 HEART RATE Normal heart rate is 72/minute. It ranges between 60 and 80 per minute.  • Tachycardia is the increase in heart rate above 100/minute.  • Bradycardia is the decrease in heart rate below 60/minute. REGULATION OF HEART RATE heart rate is regulated by the nervous mechanism; it consists of 3 components:  1. VASOMOTOR CENTER (cardiac center)  👉Vasomotor center is the nervous center that regulates the heart rate.  👉it also regulates the blood pressure.  👉 bilaterally situated in the reticular formation of medulla oblongata and lower part of pons.  👉Vasomotor center is formed by three areas:  I. VASOCONSTRICTOR AREA – CARDIOACCELERATOR CENTER  • Vasoconstrictor area is situated in the reticular formations of medulla in floor of IV ventricle and it forms the lateral portion of vasomotor center.  • It increases the heart rate and constrict blood vessels.  • It is under the control of hypothalamus and cerebral cor...

  Fetal Circulation  1. Oxygenated blood from placenta through umbilical vein enters the liver.  It supplies 2/3 of liver  • and then join portal sinus ( a Branch of Portal vein) ,it supplies 1/3rd of liver  • to form Ductus Venosus  2. Ductus Venosus runs undersurface the liver to join inferior vena cava at its junction of hepatic veins.  3. Majority of the thoracic 'IVC' blood passes through foramen ovale  • And reaches left atrium (LA) and joins blood coming from pulmonary veins  • And passes to the left ventricle  4. Blood from LV pumped into vessel of hand and fore limbs and small amounts to ascending aorta.  5. Right atrium (RA) receives blood  • Mainly from superior vena cava (SVC) and Small amount from thoracic IVC  • And pumped into pulmonary artery.  6. Main bulk of Blood (80% of RV output ) in the pulmonary artery , passes through Ductus Arteriosus to descending aorta (thus bypassing th...

  1. In early embryonic life, RBC are produced in the yolk sac.  2. During middle trimester of gestation, it is produced in the liver and spleen  3. During later part of gestation and after birth , it is produced by Red Bone marrow. Upto the age of 20 , red bone marrow of almost all bone produced rbc , but after 20 only red bone marrow of Vertebrae , sternum, ribs and ilium produced RBC. The process of formation of RBC is called Erythropoiesis. Hormones required for Erythropoiesis are  I. Erythropoietin (EPO) -secreted by kidneys.  II. Thyroxine and Testosterone Stages of Erythropoiesis are shown in following chart:-  • It takes 7 days to form mature, non-nucleated RBC.  • Life span of rbc -120 days  • Site of fate of RBC - liver and spleen.

 Heart sounds are the sounds produced by mechanical activities of heart during each cardiac cycle. Heart sounds are heard by placing the ear over the chest or by using a stethoscope or microphone. Four heart sounds are produced during each cardiac cycle: FIRST HEART SOUND  • First heart sound is produced during isometric contraction period and earlier part of ejection period  • This sound is produced due to the closure of atrioventricular valves.  • The sound is long ,soft ,low pitched and Resembles the word LUUB  • The duration of this sound is 0.10 to 0.17 second.  • Its frequency is 25 to 45 cycles/second. SECOND HEART SOUND  • Second heart sound is produced at the end of protodiastolic period.  • Second heart sound is produced due to the closure of the semilunar valves  • It resembles the spoken word ‘DUBB’ (or DUP).  • Duration of second heart sound is 0.10 to 0.14 second.  • frequency is 50 cycles/second THIRD HEART SOUN...

 Necrosis is Series of morphological change in a lethaly injured Cell. Necrosis is a pathologic process that is the consequence of severe injury. Localised area of necrosis is called infarct. Causes of necrosis :-  • Loss of oxygen supply ( ischemia)  • Exposure to microbial toxin  • Burns and other forms of chemical and physical injury  • Unusual situation in which active protease leak out of cell and damage surrounding tissue (as in pancreatitis) Characteristics of necrosis :-  • Denaturation of cellular protein  • Leakage of cellular content through damage membrane  • Local inflammation  • Enzymatic digestion of lethal injured cell. Necrosis - associated leakage of intracellular protein through damaged plasma membrane and ultimately into the circulation is the basis for blood test that detect tissue-specific cellular injury.  • In myocardial infarction; cardiac specific troponins can be detected in blood as early as 2 hours af...

 Apoptosis occur by extrinsic pathway and intrinsic pathway and both followed by final common pathway. 🍎 apoptosis results from the activation of enzyme called caspases. Extrinsic pathway (death receptor pathway):-  1. Fas /CD95or TNF-R ( tumor Necrosis factor receptor) are present in plasma membrane and has death domain.  2. Fas- ligand (death inducer ) bind to TNF-R .  3. When FasL bind to Fas , three or more Molecules of Fas are brought together . And their deaths domain form a binding sites for FADD ( Fas-associated death domain) .  4. Once FADD is attached , it activate initiator caspases pro-caspase 8 (pro -caspase 10) to active caspases 8 .  5. These initiator caspases activate executioner caspases .  6. These executioner caspases digest cytoskeleton of cytoplasm, supporting protein for nucleus ,  And activate DNAses which helps in DNA degradation.  7. The remaining mass forms Apoptotic bodies , which is engulf by macropha...

 Leaves are falling off the tree. Apoptosis  1. Apoptosis is a special type of cell death mechanism in which the pre-program cell death mechanism is triggered and cell undergoes suicidal death process.  2. Cell size get shrinkage.  3. Plasma membrane intact; altered structure, specially orientation of lipids.  4. Cellular content: intact; may be released in Apoptotic bodies.  5. Often physiologic  6. No inflammatory reaction Necrosis  1. Necrosis is a pathologic process that is a consequence of severe injury.  2. Cell get enlarged.  3. Plasma membrane disrupted.  4. Cellular contents: enzymatic digestion; may leak out of sale.  5. Usually pathologic.  6. Causes inflammatory reaction Apoptosis in physiologic situation:  1. Removal of supernumerary cell during embryogenesis.  2. Hormonal withdrawal.  Eg:- endometrial cell breakdown during the menstrual cycle, regression of the lactating breast after weanin...

   1. Anti-Apoptotic ( BCL2 , BCLX ) . They posses four BH domain called BH1-4 .  2. They reside on outer mitochondrial membrane and keep it impermeable.  3. Thus , prevent cytochrome C and other death inducing protein from leakage . This is possible only while anti Apoptotic is receiving Growth factor signals. When there is withdrawal of growth factor , or DNA damage , or protein misfolding (ER stress) , then  4. Pro- Apoptotic (BAX, BAK ) . They posses first three BH domain called BH1-3 .  5. They increases the permeability of outer mitochondrial membrane  6. Thus , cytochrome C and other death inducing protein leakage out into the cytoplasm.  7. Cytochrome C combine with APAF-1 (Apoptosis activating factor-1 ) and forms a structure called apoptosome. these apoptosome activate pro-caspase 9 to caspase 9. Which is the initiator caspases.   Now these initiator caspases activate executioner caspases. Executioner caspases digest cytoske...

 AQUEOUS HUMOUR(anterior compartment) -aqueous humour is clear fluid which fills the space between the cornea in front and the lens . - anterior compartment is further divided into two small compartment by iris ,and they commuincate by pupil. - circulation of aqueous humour : aqueous humour is produce by ciliary processes. Extra aqueous humour is passes via iridocorneal angle through canal of Schlemen and finlay drained into ciliary veins. -CLINICAL ANATOMY:Over production of aqueous humour or lack of its drainage raise the intraocular pressure. The condition is called glaucoma. It must be treated urgently. VITREOUS HUMOUR(posterior compartment ) -colourless, jelly-like transparent mass which fills the posterior compartment enclosed in hyaloid membrane. -Behind it is attached to the optic disc, and in front to the ora serrata. -the hyaloid canal extends from optic disc to lens. the canal marks the site of hyaloid artery in fetus, hyaloid artery is continuation of central...

 Nose and Paranasal Sinuses NOSE -The nose performs two functions:- (a)respiratory passage: lined by respiratory mucosa, highly vascular and warms the inspired air. (b)organ of smell: placed in the upper one-third of the nasal cavity, lined by olfactory mucosa, contains receptors called olfactory cells. -secretions of numerous serous glands make the air moist; and the secretions of mucous glands trap dust and other particles. Thus the nose acts as an air conditioner where the inspired air is warmed, moistened and cleansed before it is passed on to the delicate lungs. EXTERNAL NOSE -external nose has a skeletal framework that is partly bony and partly cartilaginous.        _bones are (a)nasal bones (b)frontal processes of the maxillae.          _cartilages are (a)superior and inferior nasal cartilages (b) septal cartilage (c)small alar cartilages  -skin over the external nose is supplied by the external nasal, infrat...

 Tongue EXTERNAL FEATURES -The tongue is a muscular organ situated in the floor of the mouth. - It is associated with the functions of (i) taste, (ii) speech, (iii) chewing, (iv)deglutition, and (v) cleansing of mouth. -The tongue has: (1) A root :- attached to the styloid process and soft palate above,and to mandible and the hyoid bone below. (2) A tip :-it is free end , lies behind the upper incisor teeth at rest. (3) A body:- has: a. A curved upper surface(dorsum) b. An inferior surface: -dorsum of the tongue is convex in all directions , and contains following (1)oral part (2) pharyngeal part (3)Small posteriormost part **oral part and pharyngeal part is divided V-shaped groove called sulcus terminalis. The two limbs of the 'V' meet at a median pit called foramen caecum. foramen caecum is the site from which the thyroid diverticulum grows down in the embryo. (1)The oral or papillary part of the tongue:- *It is placed on the floor of the mouth. Its ma...