A Journey of 100s Miles to dream

 Explain different ways of transport of CO2 from Cell?  TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE Carbon dioxide is transported by the blood from cells to the alveoli. It is transported by following four ways:  1. As dissolved form (7%)  • Carbon dioxide diffuses into blood and dissolve in the fluid of plasma forming a simple solution.  2. As carbonic acid (negligible)  • Few dissolved carbon dioxide in plasma combine with water to form carbonic acid.  3. As bicarbonate (63%)  • From plasma ,carbon dioxide enter the RBC.  • In RBC, carbon dioxide combine with water to form carbonic acid.  • Carbonic acid is very unstable, all carbonic acid dissociate into bicarbonate and hydrogen ion.  • As concentration of bicarbonate ion increases in RBC, bicarbonate ions diffuses through the cell membrane in to plasma.  Chloride Shift or Hamburger Phenomenon:  • It is the exchange of chloride ion for bicarbonate ions across RBC membrane.  • ...

 MECHANISM of Respiration (process of RESPIRATION) Respiration occur in two phases namely inspiration and expiration.  • During inspiration, thoracic cage enlarge and lungs expand so that air enter the lungs easily.  • During expiration, thoracic cage and lungs decrease in sizes, so that air leave the lungs easily. • During normal quiet breathing, inspiration is active process, and expiration is a passive process.  • Muscles involved in respiration can be classified into two groups: I. Inspiratory muscles 👉 muscles involved in inspiratory movement are known as inspiratory muscles. 👉 primary inspiratory muscles (diaphragm, external intercostal muscles) 👉 accessory inspiratory muscles ( Sternocleidomastoid, scalene, anterior serrati, eleva tors of scapulae and pectorals) II. Expiratory muscles 👉 primary expiratory muscles -internal intercostal muscles 👉 accessory excretory muscles-abdominal muscles.  • Movements of thoracic cage 👉 m...

  Artificial respiration Artificial respisration is the restoration or initiation of someone's breathing by manual, mechanical, or mouth-to-mouth methods.  • Artificial respiration is required whenever there is an arrest of breathing , without cardiac failure.  • Purpose of artificial respiration is to ventilate the alveloi and to stimulate the respiratory centers. Methods of artificial respiration are of two types  1. Manual methods  Manual methdos can be applied quickly without waiting for the availability of any mechanical aids.  Affected person must be provided with clear air . Clothes around neck and chest regions must be loosened. Mouth, face and throat should be cleared of mucus, saliva , foreign particles etc. Tounge must be drwan forward and it must be prevented from falling posteriorly.  Manual methods are of two types:-  i. Mouth- to - mouth methods : In this methods , subject should put on supine position and resuscitator kneels...

  A. ASPHYXIA  Asphyxia is the condition characterized by combination of hypoxia and hypercapnea, due to obstruction of air passge.  • Axphyxia develops in conditions characterized by acute obstruction of air passage such as Strangulation , Hanging , Drowning etc.  • Effects of asphyxia develops in three stages:-  a. Stage of Hypernea  • Hypernea is the first stage of asphyxia .  • it extends for about 1 minute  • Breathing becomes deep and rapid due to the prowerful stimulation of respiratory centers by excess of carbon dioxide.  • Eyes become more prominent .  • Hyperpnea is followed by dyspnea and cyanosis  b. Stage of Convulsions  • Stage of convulsions is characterized mainly by Convulsions (uncontrolled involuntary muscular contractions)  • Duration of this stage is less than 1 minute.  c. Stage of Collapse  • Stage of collapse lasts for about 3 minutes.  • Severe hypoxia produces the following ...

  Pituitary gland or hypophysis is a small endocrine gland ,situated in a depression called ‘sella turcica’connected with the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk or hypophyseal stalk.  • Pituitary gland is divided into two division  a. anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis  b.  posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis.  • Hypothalamo-hypophyseal relationship : hormones are secreted by hypothalamus and are transported to anterior pituitary through hypothalamo-hypophyseal blood vessels and posterior pituitary by nerve fibre of hypothalamo-hypophyseal tarct.  • Anterior pituitary is ectodermal in origin and arises from the pharyngeal epithelium as an upward growth known as Rathke pouch. Posterior pituitary is neuroectodermal in origin and arises from hypothalamus as a downward diverticulum • Anterior pituitary has two types of cell, a. Chromophobe cells , b. Chromophil cells(alpha and beta cells). • Posterior pituitary is made of neural ty...

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON  1. Depending upon the number of poles  • unipolar  • Bipolar  • Multipolar  2. Depending upon the function  • Motor  • Sensory  3. Depenidng upon the length of Axon  • Golgi Type I (Long axon)- to reach remote peripheral organ  • Golgi Type II (Short Axon)- present in cerebral cortex and spinal cord. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)  • Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is primarily concerned with regulation of visceral or vegetative functions of the body. So, it is also called vegetative or involuntary nervous system.  • divided into  1. Sympathetic division  2. Parasympathetic division. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION  • It is also called thoracolumber outflow because , the preganglionic neurons are situated in lateral gray horn of 12 thoracic and first two lumber segments of spinal cord.  • Fibers arising from here are called preganglionic fibres.  • Preganlionic fibres leave the spi...

 The peritoneum is a large serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum is in the form of a closed sac which is invaginated by a number of viscera. It is divided into :-  a. outer or parietal layer  b. inner or visceral layer  c. Folds of peritoneum by which the viscera are suspended. 3 major difference between Parietal AND Visceral Peritoneum :- Parietal Peritoneum:-  1. It lines the inner surface of the abdominal and pelvic walls and the lower surface of the diaphragm.  • It is loosely attached to the walls, and can be easily stripped.  2. Embryologically, it is derived from the somato-pleuric layer of the lateral plate mesoderm.  3. Its blood supply and nerve supply are the same as those of the overlying body wall. Visceral Peritoneum :-  1. It lines the outer surface of the viscera.  • It is firmly attached and cannot be stripped.  2. Embryologically, it is derived from the splanchno-pleuric layer of the...

  1. The internal capsule is a large band of fibres, situated in the inferomedial part of each cerebral hemisphere.  2. In horizontal section of the brain, it appears V-shaped with ita concavity directed laterally. The concavity is occupied by the lentiform nucleus.   3. (The internal capsule contains fibres going to and coming from the cerebral cortex. It can be compared to a narrow gate where the fibres are densely crowded. )  4. When traced upwards, the fibres of the capsule diverge and are continuous with the corona radiata  5. When traced downwards, its fibres converge and many of them are continuous with the crus cerebri of the midbrain.  6. The internal capsule is divided into the following parts.  • The anterior limb lies between the head of the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus  • The genu is the lies between the anterior and posterior limbs.  • The posterior limb lies behveen the thalamus and the lentiform nucleus. ...

  • The corpus callostun is the largest commissure of the brain. It connects the two cerebral hemispheres.  • The corpus callosum connects all parts of the cerebral cortex of the two sides, except the lower and anterior parts of the temporal lobes which are connected by the anterior comrnissure. Parts of Corpus Callosum :-  1. Genu:- It is the anterior end . It lies 4cm behind the frontal pole.  2. Rostrum:- It is directed downwards and backwards from genu, ends by joining lamina terminalis, infront of the anterior commissure.  3. trunk :- It is the middle part, between the genu and the splenium.  • Its superior surface is convex and inferior surface is concave.  • It provides attachment to the septum pellucidum and the fornix.  4. Splenium: - It is the posterior end forming the thickest part of the corpus callosum . It lies 6 cm in front of the occipital pole. Functional Significance:- The corpus callosum helps in coordinating activities of ...

 The brachial plexus is the network of nerves that sends signals from spinal cord to shoulder, arm and hand. The plexus consists of Roots, Trunks, Dvisions, Cords and Branches. @Ramu Tailor Drinks Cold Bear Roots:- Generally , They originated at C5-C8 and T1. The origin of the plexus may shift by one segment either upward or downward, resulting in a prefixed or postfixed plexus respectively. Trunks:-  • Roots C5 and C6 join to form the upper trunk.  • Root C7 forms the middle trunk.  • Roots C8 and T1 join to form the lower trunk. Divisions :-  • Each trunk (three in number) divides into ventral and dorsal divisions  • These divisions join to form cords. Cords:-  1. The lateral cord is formed by the union of ventral divisions of the upper and middle trunks (two divisions).  2. The medial cord is formed by the ventral division of the lower trunk (one division).  3. The posterior cord is formed by union of the dorsal divisions of all the...